THE BUDDHIST EMPIRE OF THE KUSHANS Ancient Glazed Quartz Beads from Bactria
The chiseled, blue and blue-greenish glazed chalcedony
panel beads exhibited here are unparalleled in their
kind. They hail from the regions of Balkh and Mazar-e-Sharif
in present-day Afghanistan. Intriguingly, these unique
beads are confined to this narrow geographical area,
signifying that they were never disseminated along the
famed Silk Routes, unlike many other varieties of beads. Distinctive Form and Hue
The meticulous crafting and distinctive original shapes
of these beads are truly noteworthy. Their spectrum of
hues, ranging from deep blues to soft greenish tones,
further accentuates their exceptional aesthetic allure.
The unique forms these
beads exhibit could be attributed to an early method of
wheel cutting, facilitated by a cutter and an assistant,
who kept the wheel spinning by applying diamond dust.
This technique harks back to the advent of the diamond
drill around 600 B.C., and operates on similar
technological principles as the bow drill.
Mostly, the glaze is observed to be partially worn off,
and the originally refined cut shapes exhibit signs of
considerable use. These beads, in general, bear evidence
of significant wear and tear. This could suggest that
these beads were either widely favored and extensively
used, or that they possess a remarkable antiquity, or
perhaps, both.
In this late stage of their bead-life, these odd quartz
beads
have almost turned into expressions of modern art.
The Forgotten
Hellenistic Kingdom of Bactria
In our quest to trace the origins of these beads, it's
essential to remember that Balk was once the epicenter
of the Greek-Buddhist state of Bactria. Bactria
distinguished itself as the most enduring independent
Hellenistic kingdom, renowned for its extraordinarily
resilient culture and people.
It was customary since
Achaemenid
times for the Persians to banish rebellious Greeks
living within their empire to the farthest eastern
frontier, Bactria. This practice was later adopted by
the Greeks themselves. Owing to this policy of "Siberian
exile", there was a substantial Greek presence in the
region long before Alexander the Great's conquests and
the subsequent emergence of the
Seleucid Empire.
It is often observed that displaced minority cultures
develop a strong resolve to preserve their traditional
customs. Consequently, Bactria was home to
Macedonian-Greeks who were, in many respects, more
Hellenistic than their counterparts in Greece itself.
Yet, due to their enduring cultural connections with
Buddhist India under the Seleucid rule, this deeply
conservative culture paradoxically remained open to a
myriad of hybridizations with Indian traditions.
The Advent of the Kushans
Subsequently, the arrival of the
invading Kushans, saw this unique
Macedonian-Greek-Buddhist culture persist within
Bactria. Interestingly, it persisted not as a remnant of
a bygone era, but as a thriving tradition adopted by the
conquerors themselves.
The
Kushan didn't simply appropriate the culture of
those they had conquered; they adopted and meticulously
refined it, experiencing a cultural rebirth as
innovative stewards of Hellenistic art. As a result, the
famed
Gandhara art was not a creation of the
Macedonian-Greeks but rather a product of the Kushan
civilization. The Kushans, in their cultural
adaptability, played a critical role in preserving and
enhancing the art forms of a culture they initially
subdued.
The Prevalence of Buddhism
The Buddhist culture of Bactria, despite the establishment of an
Islamic elite, maintained a significant cultural foothold in the
region for centuries. However, a pivotal shift occurred in 1193
A.D. when Turkic Islamic raiders, led by Muhammad Khilji,
ravaged and incinerated the renowned Buddhist
university-monastery in Nālandā.
Prior to this catastrophic event, the incursion and settlement
of Arab forces did not necessitate religious conversion to
Islam. Instead, the conquered populace was only expected to
exhibit submission, primarily for economic reasons. The invaders
were not particularly invested in converting the indigenous
population, primarily due to a fiscal mechanism: the jizya
tax. This additional tax was levied exclusively on non-Muslims.
Therefore, a wholesale conversion to Islam would have diminished
this substantial revenue source for the ruling elite.
During this initial period of
eastward expansion, spanning from the takeover
of Balk in 705 A.D.
to the close of the 12th century, Islam remained primarily a
religion of the ruling classes. The new leadership showed little
interest in constructing a caliphate-style state and thus did
not impose the kind of ideological control often associated with
such overarching power structures. As such, local Buddhists and
practitioners of other faiths were not relegated to the status
of dhimmis, or second-class citizens. The governing elite
were content to exert control over the region's financial
systems, permitting Buddhists the liberty to shape the cultural
landscape outside the limited sphere of Islamic life.
In this context, the primary threat to the Buddhist majority
didn't originate from their Arab rulers but rather from the
burgeoning sway of Hinduism. (Refer: 'Buddhism in Northwestern
India and Eastern Afghanistan, Sixth to Ninth Century AD' by
Giovanni Veradi). Indeed, the Buddhists were often more than
willing to collaborate with Muslims as a means of combating the
aggressive Brahmanisation emanating from India.
Considering the religious landscape of the Eastern Islamic
territories, it's not an exaggeration to assert that Bactria
functioned as a Buddhist society under foreign political control
up until 1193 A.D. This geopolitical dynamic is somewhat
comparable to the contemporary situation in Tibet following the
Chinese occupation in 1950. How would you describe modern Tibet
- as a Communist state or a Buddhist one?
A Misguided Chronology
In the book titled
A Bead Timeline, the kind of glazed quartz beads
showcased on this page are categorized as Early Islamic,
unearthed from
Nishapur and believed to be from the 9th to 11th century.
Following this publication, these beads have often been
categorically identified as 'Islamic' due to this established
literary precedence.
I humbly dissent with this attribution that situates the origin
of these beads as Islamic. I believe James Lankton overlooked
the vital distinction between economic, political, and cultural
power during the initial stages of the Islamic expansion towards
the East. Let me take this moment, though, to express my deep
appreciation for his exceptional work.
By this point, it should be abundantly clear that there's no
reason to reflexively classify these Bactrian beads as Islamic,
simply due to the governance of an Islamic elite in the region.
It's more likely that these beads formed part of the ancient
heritage that was still vibrantly alive at that time in this
area.
Upon close examination of the glazed quartz beads from the
timeline book's illustration above, it's obvious that these
beads, bearing such extensive signs of wear, are significantly
older than the 9th to 10th-century layer from which they were
unearthed. Nearly all the glazed quartz beads in my collection
exhibit similar wear and tear, indicative of prolonged use.
Considering that quartz
ranks 7 on the Mohs hardness scale, it's quite evident
that these beads must have already experienced multiple
human lifetimes by the time they were sequestered.
This fact alone contradicts their categorization as
Islamic beads. With this in mind, let's delve deeper
into the glazing aspect.
It appears that glazing was applied later
Upon closer inspection of the beads, it becomes evident
how intricately and precisely they were originally
carved. This detailed craftsmanship is in stark contrast
to the relatively haphazard, almost careless, glazing,
barring a few exceptions which might be remnants of the
original colorings.
I surmise that these beads were initially crafted
without any color and then were glazed at a much later
date. In several specimens, one can observe that the
glazing was applied to a surface that had already seen
substantial wear and tear for generations before this
color modification was added, as can be seen in the
example below:
It is plausible that
these intricately carved quartz beads were crafted by
the early inhabitants of Bactria. The original beauty of
the white coloration, however, is similar to wearing
white clothes - it inevitably acquires a grimy and worn
appearance after hundreds of years of use.
Subsequent generations,
perhaps even Muslim settlers, likely conceived the idea
of reviving the beads' allure with vibrant glazing.
Here are some examples that exhibit this later
application of glazing quite vividly.
It's likely that even the Islamic
population in the region utilized these beads, even going as far
as to reshape them. This carving displayed below, which portrays
an Indo-Persian warrior donning a spiked Kulah
Khud helmet, serves
as a prime example of how these age-old beads were altered to
meet the changing aesthetic preferences and demands of later
periods.
As we traverse back in
time, armed with the lens of historical perspective, we
could consider, as Peter Francis
suggests, a potential
Sassanian
origin. However, apart from the standalone carving
above, there's little about the design of these beads
that suggests a connection to Sassanian culture.
In the ensuing text, I'll explore a path that I find
more compelling. It leads us back to the zenith of the
Buddhist Kushan
era.
Bactria, The Histoty of a forgotten Empire -
H. G. Rawlingson
Alexander the Great
Robin Lane Fox
A History of Christianity - Diarmaid Mc Culloch
Hellenism in ancient India - Bannerjee, Gauranga Nath
Verdens Kulturhistorie
(Bind II til V) -
Will Durant
The Art and Architecture of India
1996. B. Rowland
Buddha Statuen -
Leonhard Adam,1925
Buddha in Indien -
Kunsthistorisches Museeum in Wien - 1995
Buddhism in North western India and Eastern
Afghanistan, Sixth to Ninth Century AD
Giovanni Veradi
The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the
Indo-Greeks
Richard Stoneman 2019
BELOW, BEHOLD THE TALISMANS FROM THE KUSHAN ERA
Displayed below are carved stone hands encased in gold,
excavated from the Royal Kushan gravesite in Tillya Tepe,
a site attributed to the first century A.D.
Kushan clenched-hand beads - National Museum of
Afghanistan
Photos from:
Afghanistan, Crossroads of the Ancient World - British
Museum
Take a
moment to compare these two Kushan talismans with the
so-called Islamic quartz bead shown further below.
It's worth noting that Tillya Tepe is in close proximity
to Mazar-e-Sharif, the origin of the majority of the
glazed quartz beads we're discussing.
Without a doubt, there
is a compelling argument to be made that this milky
quartz bead is a product of the Kushan tradition.
Although I cannot definitively prove it, I can assert
that the likelihood is very high.
The hand gesture of the Kushan talisman bears a striking
resemblance to the 'mano-fico,'
a symbol prevalent throughout the Roman era. However,
it's worth noting that the Kushan talisman positions the
thumb distinctly, not placed between the index and
middle finger as seen in the Roman mano-fico.
Roman
mano-fico
Note the placement of the thumb
In the same category of
talismans, we also
find feet as motives:
Tillya Tepe
Once again, the
similarity to the glazed quartz beads below is striking.
.
My collection
My collection
Tillya Tepe
In terms of the
depiction of hands and feet, one could conjecture a
potential influence from Buddhism. The ancient tradition
of Buddhism practiced
aniconism
in art, often representing Buddha through a hand or a
foot, an empty throne, or the Bodhi Tree.
Furthermore, there's a discernible similarity to
Fahtima's hand.
However, it's noteworthy that both Fatima's and Buddha's
hand gestures, the mudras,
are characteristically open and welcoming. As a matter
of fact, Fatima's healing hand, known as the Hamsa,
along with Buddha's hand of blessing, both find their
roots in the ancient Indus Valley civilization.
Indus
Mother Goddess with the blessing hand gesture
A clenched fist conveys
a message distinct from openness. Much like the Roman
mano-fico, it is a symbol befitting a more combative or
defensive stance. As mentioned in a book from the
British Museum, these carved hands and feet likely
served as talismans intended to ward off evil forces.
These Kushan artifacts from Tillya Tepe are unique in
their expression, but also reflect influences from
Bactrian Greek art.
Below are some gold beads discovered in the same Kushan
burial site at Tillya Tepe:
Again we find a great similarity with
the patterns in the glazed quartz bead below. The gold beads
and are sized between 25 to 28 mm.
The glazed quartz beads are on average a bit smaller
My collection
My collection
And here again there is a striking resemblance
between
the Kushan artifacts and the glazed quartz beads:
Tillya Tepe
My collection
Tillya Tepe
My collection
As Islam began to
institutionalize its state power, it tended to erase all
traces of preceding religions, cultures, and ideologies,
much like Christianity. Kashmir serves as a prime
example of this phenomenon. The original Hindu
inhabitants, the Kashmiri Pandits, associate every
waterfall, river, and mountain peak with names
referencing a myriad of religious myths and folklore
narratives. In contrast, the Muslims in the area abide
by the teachings of the Quran and pan-Islamic art and
culture. In this sense, they exist in a historical and
geographical vacuum, their connection to their immediate
surroundings diminished to the extent that relocating to
Saudi Arabia would make little difference from this
perspective.
However, as mentioned, Islam did not enforce an
absolutist religious, cultural, and ideological
conformity during its eastward expansion until around
1200 A.D. This allowed age-old artistic expressions to
continue evolving independently.
Below, you can observe an ancient Indus gold goblet
originating from the same Bactrian region.
Goblet (99 mm) with
geometric motif - Tepe Fullol
2200 - 1900 B.C.
This cross motif we find
reused
in abundance on the glazed quartz beads:
My collection
The old Indus and later
Buddhist cross-motif can also be found:
While I cannot
definitively prove that these glazed beads originate
from the Kushan culture, the evidence suggests it is a
plausible theory. Moreover, the hypothesis that they
have non-Islamic roots is more readily supported by the
evidence at hand.
I warmly encourage you to
view these specimens not merely as historical artifacts,
but akin to works of modern art. The ancient bead,
through the prism of time's wear and tear coupled with
casually applied, worn down yet strikingly beautiful
colors, takes on a certain abstract artistic quality.
Broken beauties,
in particular, gain a unique fascination when perceived
through this lens that blends aesthetics with rich
historical narratives. It is a viewpoint that adds a new
layer of depth and appreciation to these enduring tokens
of the past.
BACT 13 - 33 * 16 * 14 mm
Open your intuition
to these beads, allowing them to whisper to you tales of
Greek legend intertwined with the lives of Bactrian
Buddhists. Let them transport you to an era of a
near-forgotten, yet rich and powerful kingdom that once
thrived, resonating with its echoes in the subtle murmur
of these ancient tokens.
