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The Pyu City-States and the Indian Buddhist Influence
The most remarkable and aesthetically pleasing beads
from Burma predominantly originate from the
Pyu city-state culture. As evidenced throughout this
page, these artifacts represent a vast assortment of
bead types.
A Snapshot of Burma's Pyu City-States
The Pyu city-states, known
for their prosperity and peace, had an impressively long
lifespan. They began around 200 B.C. and gradually
declined around 1050 A.D. Visitors from contemporary
China characterized the Pyu city-states as both affluent
and tranquil. Chinese chronicles observed that young Pyu
monks chose to wear cotton silk rather than genuine
silk, thereby sparing the lives of silk worms.
The Indian Influence on Pyu's Culture
Although the Pyu people descended from a Tibeto-Burmese
tribe originating from the Yunnan province, they quickly
fell under the extensive influence of India.
Indian Ashokan Buddhism, followed by Gupta influences,
permeated every level of Pyu society, facilitated by
far-reaching trade relations. This influence was
particularly apparent in the southern Pyu areas where
the most significant maritime trade with India was
conducted. Here, the process of 'Indianization' was
highlighted by southern kings of Sri Ksetra adopting
Indian titles like Varmans and Varma.
Both the southern and northern Pyu states were
influenced by India. Some northern Pyu Kings (Tagaung)
even asserted their lineage from the Sakya clan of the
Buddha.
Buddhist India: A Super Power
With a population not exceeding a few hundred
thousand people at their peak, the Pyu city-states were
small in size. Such a limited population lacks the
critical mass necessary to create a fully independent
society.
Contrastingly, ancient India was a vast empire, hosting
one of the world's largest populations. With King
Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, India became the ruler
of the world's most substantial economic power.
Evidence of the deep Ashokan Indianization can be found
at numerous Pyu sites, which have unveiled a wide
variety of Indian scripts. These range from King Asoka’s
edicts written in north Indian Brahmi and Tamil Brahmi,
dated to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, to the Gupta
script and Kannada script, dated to the 4th to 6th
centuries AD.
The countless stupas and pagodas in Bagan, encapsulating
a purely Indian Buddhist architectural style, likely owe
their construction to Indian engineers and architects.
Ruled by independent kings, the Pyu settlements
established courts heavily influenced by the Indian
monarchy, particularly the southeast region of India.
Kings and Monks
Under the
influence of Ashokan Buddhism, Kings were not considered
inherently divine. Instead, their legitimacy was
sanctioned through a symbolic 'baptism' by Buddhist
institutions. The people of Pyu, and later the Burmans,
adhered to the original state Buddhism of the Ashokan
empire. This created a symbiosis between monasteries and
the state, whereby Kings could not exist without being
divinely ordained by the Theravada institutions.
From the inception of the Pyu culture to the English
conquest of Mandalay in 1885, Buddhist monks played a
crucial role in sanctifying Burmese kings. Monks
performed the necessary rituals to validate the
monarch's divine right to rule. In return, royal
families provided financial support to the Sangha (the
monastic community). This system, which slowly faded in
India with the rise of the Sunghas, continued in Burma
until the English extinguished the royal classes during
the last Anglo-Burmese war in 1885.
Animist Buddhism
By the 4th century, the Pyu had largely embraced
Buddhism. However, akin to contemporary Burma, the
practice of Buddhism often layered over a deep-rooted
animistic core. This blend of beliefs is akin to the
creation of Burmese lacquer art - beneath many layers of
lacquer, the innermost core is made of animal horse
hairs. In essence, the Burmese culture remains
fundamentally animistic. The interpretation of Burmese
Buddhism should be viewed within this animistic context.
This also applies to the bead culture and the associated
magical beliefs attached to beads, which reflect the
spectrum between
Animism and Buddhism.
The Ascendancy of the
Burman Culture
Around 800 AD, the Burman culture began to slowly
replace the Pyu culture, initiating from Bagan. A
recurring theme in history is the tendency of the
victors to adopt the culture of the defeated, and the
Burmans were no exception. A poignant illustration of
this is seen in the actions of the new Burman ruler who
assumed an entirely Indian name, King Anawrahta. In
1044, when he declared his conversion from Ari-Buddhism
to Theravada Buddhism, he commissioned the building of
the Schwezigon Pagoda. Interestingly, this pagoda was
constructed in the distinctive architectural style of
the Pyu.
Schwezigon Pagoda, Bagan, 1044
Buddhists and Hindus:
Co-existing Cultures
The civilizations of the Pyu and later the Burmans were
predominantly Buddhist, however, they had a significant
and respected Hindu minority, mirroring the religious
diversity of India. Regrettably, much evidence of a
prosperous Hindu culture in Burma was systematically
destroyed following the military coup in 1962. For
instance, in Bagan, several hundred ancient Pyu
Shiva-lingas were demolished as part of the
military's efforts to eradicate all Hindu cultural
influence in Burma. Simultaneously, millions of Indians
who had settled in Burma during the British colonial
period were expelled from the country by the new
military dictatorship.
The
Evolution of Bead History
The trajectory of bead production mirrored the
political shifts in power, as the production techniques
and styles were appropriated by the ascendant Burman
rulers. Consequently, distinguishing between an
authentic Pyu bead and a bead crafted by the subsequent
Burman artisans of Bagan can sometimes be challenging. I
had the privilege of interacting with a group of Burmese
individuals whose livelihoods depend on bead hunting.
From my experience, they are the most adept bead experts
I've encountered throughout my time as a bead collector.
They maintain that they can easily differentiate between
a Pyu bead and a later Bagan-Burman bead, attributing
the decline in the quality of bead making to the period
following the Pyu civilization's decline.
Certainly, Pyu beads possess a distinct identity and
artistic allure. However, it's critical to remember that
these beads, along with their designs, served as vessels
of cultural and religious symbolism, largely influenced
by the Buddhist epicenter, India.
In examining the design and symbolic significance of Pyu
and subsequent Burmese beads, it's essential to consider
their well-documented connections to and dependencies on
Indian trade. Furthermore, it's important to remember
that during the Pyu era, India was a predominantly
Buddhist country. Thus, all beads from this period, and
even those created later, should be interpreted in the
context of the syncretic blend of Animistic and Buddhist
traditions in Indian culture.
Presently, Pyu bead culture is often misinterpreted as
an isolated phenomenon, akin to the erroneous perception
of Gandhara art as a cultural artifact exclusive to
Afghanistan. However, Gandharan art wasn't merely a
local artistic expression; it was an integral part of
the flourishing State Buddhism of Greater India.
Below, I've displayed a selection of etched beads that I
procured in Bagan. These beads share an identical design
with the ones I discovered in Northwest India and
Pakistan. As it often happens, beads can be seen as
voyagers — on one hand, they lose their historical
context through travel; on the other hand, they actively
contribute to the creation of history through their
journey.
Beads from Bagan, Burma
Beads from Northwest India
Assessing the
Age of Pumtek Beads
In the West, Pumtek beads are often classified as Pyu
beads. However, during my visits to Burma, I found that
local diggers, collectors, and bead sellers do not
acknowledge this classification. Many were not even
familiar with the term 'Pumtek', referring to these
beads simply as 'Chin beads', indicating their origin
from the Chin province in Northwestern Myanmar. This,
combined with my historical investigations, led me to
formulate the following hypothesis:
At the onset of the Pyu culture, there was no distinct
or remarkable bead culture in Burma. Similar to the
architectural styles of the pagodas, the lives of the
Kings, and so forth, the prevailing cultural elements
were largely modeled after those of their Indian
Buddhist neighbor. Consequently, the earliest beads
discovered in Burma exhibited purely Indian designs,
either produced in India or by Indian-influenced
artisans residing in Burma. It was only later that the
various tribes of Burma began to cultivate their own
styles and techniques of bead making.
This evolution mirrored the progression observed in the
development of stupas and pagodas in Burma. Initially,
structures at Bagan were purely derivative of Indian
architecture. However, as the Burman culture expanded
and exerted influence over neighboring tribes and
regions, Burma started to develop its own distinct style
of stupa and pagoda architecture.
Bagan-Indian cloned stupa style
One of the primary
characteristics of Pumtek beads is that they are made
from petrified or agatized wood, a material not found in
India but abundant in Burma. Therefore, Pumtek or 'Chin'
beads could be seen as representing a later, more
'localized', and independent progression in Burmese bead
making. Interestingly, this development did not occur
within the historical centers of power in Burma, but
rather at the periphery of the country.
At present, I do not possess sufficient evidence to
confirm this hypothesis; it remains a working model.
However, if considered from this perspective, Pumtek or
'Chin' beads may not be as ancient as previously
thought, potentially not exceeding a maximum age of 1000
years.
The Significance of the
Buddhist Cruciform
One of the most prevalent symbols observed on Pyu
beads is the cruciform.
While the Pyu civilization
had a particular fondness for this symbol, it did not
originate from their culture but came as a messenger of
Buddhism from India.
Cruciform stupa structure
of Somapura, Greater India
The cruciform held
significant importance in early Buddhism and was
integrated into the architecture of most stupas and
pagodas. To explore this connection, I presented several
well-learned Buddhist monks in Myanmar with cruciform
beads, such as the one displayed below, and asked them
about their initial impressions of this symbol.
Interestingly, even though most of these monks had never
seen these cruciform beads before, their responses
aligned with my expectations.
"This symbol depicts the Four Noble Truths of the
Buddha..."
"This symbol signifies the mission of the Buddha, akin
to what is portrayed in the Ashoka pillar..."
Buddhist Cruciform Jasper Bead
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26 * 24 * 9 mm
Click on picture for larger image
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Again, the
profound influence from Indian Buddhism is evident. This
pre-Christian cross was the emblem of the renowned
Buddhist University at Taxila in Northwest 'Greater
India'.
Below you can see a bead from Taxila in Pakistan.
Below, you can see a bead
from Taxila in Pakistan. I firmly believe that the
patterns depicted on etched beads represent a simple
sign language rooted in Buddhist culture. These
straightforward signs, like the uncomplicated mudras of
the Buddha, served to unify various Buddhist societies
scattered along the vast expanse of the trade routes.
These diverse Buddhist cultures had different customs
and languages, but they found common ground in
understanding the humanistic messages of the Buddha.
These messages promoting tolerance and human
understanding were essential for the maintenance of the
trade routes. You can read more about this subject [here].
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